Cross-Border Remittances and Mobility in North Korea

Abstract

Non-governmental organisations have developed a repertoire of information campaigns to expand information dissemination in North Korea through pamphlets, radio broadcasts, and outside media. The main purpose of the information campaigns by NGOs has been to educate North Koreans about universal rights and the outside world, but they have had the unintended effect of driving outflows of people seeking the opportunities and freedom other countries offer. Simultaneously, the transnational networks crossing the borders to assist North Koreans in escape and bring items, messages, and money into the country have solidified and entangled themselves with the border economy. Academic research has focused on the non-personal information flows into the country and the financial remittance impact on the local economy and border-crossing, overlooking how social remittances can shape mobility. With this in mind, this thesis aims to examine the role of financial and social remittances in North Korean migration, stemming from the understanding that migration is a two-step process in which individuals first want to migrate to accomplish or attaint something and then they migrate using their capabilities. In doing so, this study has addressed the following research questions: do financial and social remittances prompt aspirations to leave North Korea?; and is mobility enabled through social remittances? This research has taken a qualitative case study approach including in-depth semi-structured interviews with North Koreans, and scholars and individuals working on North Korea or with North Koreans, a qualitative survey, and review of published materials. It has used the Aspiration and Ability model to trace the influence of remittances in each migration step. The findings of this research show that financial remittances act both as mobility deterrents and enablers as they provide enough capital to potentially cover migration fees. At the same time, however, receivers live more comfortably or become entrepreneurs in North Korea. Social remittances are mobility drivers as they carry trustworthy information about life outside, disseminate know-how about how to escape, and share crucial information about the broker networks to contact. The study argues financial remittances have the dual effect of enabling migration while simultaneously giving economic comfort to the receivers. Social remittances are crucial in the migration process and make the journey safer for receivers. Remittance-receiving through communication with trustworthy individuals along with financial inflows are key contributors to successful voluntary mobility out of North Korea.